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24/07/2023

Working Memory Is Important For Decision Making

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. It is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory. Still, some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that it allows for the manipulation of stored information. In contrast, short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. It is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.

Meaning

Working memory is one of the brain’s executive functions. It’s a skill that allows us to work with information without losing track of what we’re doing. Think of it as a temporary sticky note in the brain. It holds new information in place so the brain can work with it briefly and connect it with other information.

Working Memory in Children: Meaning, Importance And Ways To Improve
Working Memory in Children

What is the role of Working memory?

It plays a crucial role in cognitive processes and is responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information during complex tasks. It acts as a mental workspace that allows us to actively process and manipulate data for a short period. The primary function is to facilitate the integration of new information with existing knowledge, enabling us to make sense of the world and engage in problem-solving. It involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information in real-time.

Here are some key roles of working memory:

Information Storage

Working memory serves as a temporary storage system for holding the information that is being actively processed. It allows us to keep relevant information readily available for use.

Attentional Control

It helps regulate attention by directing our focus to specific stimuli or tasks while filtering out irrelevant information and enables us to maintain attention to relevant information and ignore distractions.

Cognitive Flexibility

Working memory allows us to switch between different tasks or mental sets. It enables us to hold and update multiple goals or strategies in mind, supporting flexible thinking and adaptive behavior.

Problem Solving

It is essential for complex problem-solving. It enables us to hold relevant information, generate and evaluate potential solutions, and manipulate variables in our minds to arrive at the best possible outcome.

Language Comprehension

Working memory plays a vital role in understanding and processing language. It helps us hold and manipulate sentence structures, semantic information, and contextual details to comprehend and respond to spoken or written communication.

Learning and Education

It is closely linked to learning and academic performance. It supports the acquisition and retention of new knowledge, as well as the integration of new information with existing knowledge.

Impairments can impact various aspects of cognitive functioning, including:

  • Attention,
  • Learning,
  • Problem-solving, and
  • Language comprehension.

Understanding the role is essential for optimizing cognitive processes and developing effective strategies for learning, problem-solving, and other complex tasks.

The capacity of Working memory

Cowan proposed that it has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults). In the visual domain, some investigations report no fixed capacity limit concerning the total number of items that can be held in working memory. Instead, the results argue for a limited resource that can be flexibly shared between items retained in memory, with some items in the focus of attention being allocated more resources and recalled with greater precision.

Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in the correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible through extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). 

Working memory Development

The capacity increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.

Childhood Working memory

Measures of performance on tests increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition, theorists have argued that the growth of capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development.

Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on the prefrontal cortex for performing various tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n-back task revealed a lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.

Aging

Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations for this decline have been offered. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding that cognitive processes generally slow as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working memory content to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of its capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. 

Age-related decline can be briefly reversed using low-intensity transcranial stimulation to synchronize rhythms in prefrontal and temporal areas.

Working memory training

Some studies on the effects of training, including the first by Torkel Klingberg, suggest that working memory in those with ADHD can improve through training. This study found that a period of training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores.

Another study by the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with its functions. One study has shown that its training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors in test subjects. However, subsequent experiments with the same training program have shown mixed results, with some successfully replicating, and others failing to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance.

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Training of Working Memory

Working Memory in the Brain

Localization in the brain

Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e., lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC.

A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in the pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.

Neural models

One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning is the prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks.

Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had had seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Researchers found that such damage resulted in a decreased capacity to carry out executive functions. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training increases volume in the basal ganglia.

Effects of Stress on Neurophysiology

Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. 

Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Mood states (positive or negative) can influence the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.

Effects of Alcohol on Neurophysiology

Excessive alcohol use can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol affects the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a task.

Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol-dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one’s performance on tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference regarding how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol.

Working memory role in Academic Achievement

The capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.

Subsequent work found that its performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child’s memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.

Working memory relation to Attention

There is some evidence that optimal performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement is due to increasing these abilities. 

One line of research suggests a link between the capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important to their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren).  

Working memory relationship with Neural Disorders

An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:

ADHD

Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition, or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significantly lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal tasks and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.

Parkinson’s disease

Patients with Parkinson’s show signs of reduced verbal function. They wanted to find out if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks or a low amount of memory capacity.

Alzheimer’s disease

As Alzheimer’s disease becomes more serious, fewer functions. In addition to deficits in episodic memory, Alzheimer’s disease is associated with impairments in visual short-term memory, assessed using delayed reproduction tasks. These investigations point to a deficit in visual feature binding as an important component of the deficit in Alzheimer’s disease.

There is one study that focuses on neural connections and fluidity in mice brains. The study helps answer questions about how Alzheimer’s can deteriorate it and ultimately obliterate memory functions.

Huntington’s disease

A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. 

Working memory relationship with Uncertainty

A recent study by Li and colleagues showed evidence that the same brain regions responsible are also responsible for how much humans trust those memories. In the past, studies have shown that individuals can evaluate how much they trust their memories, but how humans can do this was largely unknown. 

How to enhance Working memory?

Enhancing it can be beneficial for improving cognitive abilities and performance in various tasks. Here are some approaches you can try:

Practice Working Memory Exercises

Engage in activities and exercises specifically designed to challenge and improve it. This can include tasks like memorizing and recalling sequences of numbers, letters, or words or solving puzzles that require you to hold and manipulate information in your mind.

Chunking Information

Break down complex information into smaller, more manageable chunks. By organizing information into meaningful groups, you can reduce the cognitive load and make it easier to remember and manipulate.

Use Mnemonic Techniques

Mnemonics are memory aids that can help you remember information by associating it with vivid imagery, acronyms, or other memory-enhancing strategies. Mnemonic techniques can help reduce strain by providing external cues or structures.

Establish Routines and Organizational Systems

Reduce the demand by creating routines and systems that help you organize and structure your daily tasks and information. This can include using calendars, to-do lists, and reminders to offload the burden of remembering everything solely.

Stay Focused and Minimize Distractions

Working memory is highly sensitive to distractions, so it’s important to create an environment conducive to concentration. Minimize external distractions, such as noise or interruptions, and practice techniques like mindfulness to improve focus and attention.

Break Tasks into Smaller Steps

When faced with complex tasks, break them down into smaller, more manageable steps. This approach reduces the load by allowing you to focus on one piece of information or subtask at a time.

Engage in Regular Physical Exercise

Engaging in aerobic exercises like running, swimming, or cycling can improve blood flow to the brain and enhance cognitive abilities.

Get Sufficient Sleep

A good night’s sleep is essential for optimal cognitive functioning, including working memory. 

Remember that everyone’s capacity is different, and improvement may vary from person to person. Consistency and practice are key when implementing strategies to enhance it.

Top Ways to Improve Working Memory in Kids
How to Improve Working Memory

Conclusion

In conclusion, working memory is a vital cognitive function that allows us to temporarily hold and manipulate information in our minds. It serves as a mental workspace, facilitating complex tasks such as problem-solving, learning, language comprehension, and attentional control. By improving our capacity and implementing strategies to optimize its function, we can enhance cognitive abilities, improve performance, and better manage the demands of daily life. While its capacity may vary among individuals, practicing exercises, utilizing mnemonic techniques, staying focused, organizing information, engaging in physical exercise, and prioritizing sufficient sleep can all contribute to the enhancement of working memory. Recognizing the importance and employing strategies to support its optimal functioning can lead to improved cognitive performance and overall mental efficiency.

Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q: What is the difference between working memory and long-term memory?

A: Working memory and Long-term memory are distinct cognitive functions. It is responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information in real time, while long-term memory involves the storage of information for an extended period. 

Q: Can working memory be improved?

A: Regular practice of related exercises, using mnemonic techniques, minimizing distractions, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and engaging in physical exercise are some ways to improve it. It’s important to note that while improvement is possible, individual differences in capacity may still exist.

Q: Are there any factors that can affect working memory?

A: Yes, several factors can impact its performance. Fatigue, stress, anxiety, and distractions can all impair function. Additionally, certain conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and aging can affect its capacity. Understanding these factors can help in implementing strategies to mitigate their impact.

Q: Is working memory fixed throughout life?

A: It is important to recognize that there are individual differences in capacity, and each person has a unique cognitive profile.

Q: How does working memory relate to academic performance?

A: It plays a crucial role in academic performance. Students with stronger working memory tend to exhibit better academic achievement. Enhancing capacity and implementing strategies to support its functioning can positively impact learning outcomes.

Q: Can aging affect working memory?

A: Yes, its capacity may decline with age. As individuals grow older, there can be a natural decrease in function. However, engaging in activities that stimulate cognitive abilities, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, and implementing memory-enhancing strategies can help mitigate the effects of age-related decline and support performance.

Q: Are there any specific interventions or training programs for improvement?

A: Yes, there are various interventions and training programs designed to improve it. These programs often involve structured exercises that target tasks, gradually increasing the difficulty level. Computer-based programs, cognitive training apps, and working memory training workshops are available options for individuals looking to enhance their related skills.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory

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